Marine Biology 278

Feb. 18, 2009             REVIEW OUTLINE--EXAM I

           

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY of OCEANOGRAPHY —know these; see also READINGS at end of outline:

            3. #arly 1800s: E. ForbesÕ azoic hypothesis

4. Challenger  expedition 1872--> 3 years around globe. Why important?

            7. 1940s-70s:  why rapid growth in marine exploration ? What major advances?

            9. mid90s-2000:  why a new burst of marine exploration ? What major advances?

            10. 2001-08: What major advances are underway or planned?

I. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 A. TECTONIC/GEOLOGICAL FACTORS: -->Generalize topographies of oceans

  PLATE TECTONICS as unifying theory--know basic features, major examples of these, especially Washington state coastal!!!:

       1. Spreading Centers/Rift Valleys& MidOcean Ridges                 2. Collisions: Subduction Zones/Trenches; --land-to-seafloor and seafloor-seafloor

       4. Hot  Spots --island/seamount chains: how form   

       * BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Distinguish long vs short-term: habitat creation/destruction (e.g., earthquakes, collisions, tsunamis, new islands).

          --alter climate and currents; .--energy/nutrients for life;

 B. SURFACE FACTORS (geological and biological)

       1.Rock:  a) Geologically produced (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic);

                  b) Biologically produced--limestone and other CaCO3 forms;

       2. Sediments *SIZE Categories: Cobbles > Sand > Silt > Clay (Clay + Silt = MUD; OOZE= mud with 30+% organic origin)

          a) Calcareous and b) Siliceous: what each is

       3. Hydrogenous formations: know how each forms, composition, where found -- some may be BIOGENOUS

                 a) Metal sulfide precipitates at hydrothermal vent areas

                 b) Manganese nodules;      

                c) Methane hydrates/carbonate rocks--see READING

SUMMARY DIAGRAM showing distributions of sediments, formations in ocean and WHY

          * BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS makes different benthic habitat types; energy sources (details later)

 

C. MOVEMENT FACTORS

       1. WAVES, Wind-Driven or earth-movement-driven (tsunami):  *Energy distribution=L/2; how leads to cresting/crashing on shoreline

          * Biological implications:   i) wave shock damage

                ii) help determine surface type: mud, sand, rock                  iii) mixed layer--later

       2. CURRENTS: VERTICAL CURRENTS

          a. Wind-Driven SURFACE Currents:  *WINDS and the CORIOLIS EFFECT: Know how sun, earth's rotation and Coriolis lead to wind "cells" and the TRADE, WESTERLY and POLAR Easterlies Wind Belts! Then: water pushed to right (or left in S.hemi.) of wind due to EKMAN effect--how all this creates CURRENT BELT and the GYRES.

                 -->know MAJOR GYRE patterns of all oceans, including NAMES of N. Pacific currents, the Gulf Stream in the N. Atlantic, and the BELT = Antarctic Circumpolar

                 -->COMPLICATIONS: what are EDDIES and how do they form?

          b. Wind-driven Vertical Currents:

                i) UPWELLING: how caused by winds at shoreline; EKMAN effect!                       

          c. THERMOHALINE Curents = Vertical density-driven currents

                --how polar downwelling creates deep waters of the oceans; + upwelling near Antarctica, equator!

          d. Abyssal Currents/Storms--?? Mysterious deep storms; vents causing convection currents in rift valleys

 

    *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS of WINDS, CURRENTS:

-- winds create major land Climate zones

i) Surface gyres--major distribution patterns of plankton; moderation of climate            

ii) Upwelling: nutrient restoration! Be able to relate high upwelling areas to wind belts

iii) Downwelling takes O2 deep--prevents stagnation in the deep sea

iv) Storms/; can also churn up nutrients from deep

 

3. TIDES (Gravity-rotation-driven wave)
 a) LUNAR Gravity, Earth-Moon Centrifugal effect --how these create 2 opposite bulges;

   b) SOLAR Tides –how they add/subtract with lunar tides to create Neap and Spring tides:

c) Lunar-orbit precession creates High-Lows, Low-Highs, etc.

D. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS

    1. LIGHT:  a. Depth--exponential decrease with Wavelength variation--red vs. blue-green absorbance!!  Open Ocean vs. Coastal: often green or murky brown in coastal waters

          b. Latitude & seasonal variation; e.g., up to 24-hr light in polar summers

          c. UV--most absorbed by ozone layer, but some makes it to surface--double exposure at shore due to water reflection

        * BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS:  i) photosynthesis: why chlorophyll of limited use; ii) vision and

         bioluminescence best at blue-green wavelengths; iii) UV damage to DNA -- thymidine dimers

    2. Temperature: a. Depth variation: thermocline in tropical areas, and in temperate-zone summers; cold areas more uniform

       b. Latitude & seasonal variation; Few extremes compared to land (exceptions= vents). Basic latitudinal pattern of colder away from equator; altered by upwelling (cold). El Ni–o: what happens to Pacific currents
c. Long-term variation: changing sealevel with Ice Ages, warming: trends for last 400,000 years

    * BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS:

         i) Basic Temperature effects on biological reaction kinetics and complex biological molecules: optima! Know the basics of the plot!

         ii) less O2 dissolving; iii) sealevel rise; and iv) suppressed downwelling--less O2 to deep + climate effects

 

3. DENSITY:  combination of temperature & salinity; DENSER THINGS SINK
FW floats on SW; Warm water floats on colder; BUT Ice floats

    *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS: i) buoyancy problems: protein, skeletons/shells are denser than seawater;  ii) Subsurface never freezes!

 

4. Hydrostatic PRESSURE

        DEPTH--1 atm per 10m:   e.g. MARIANA Trench/Challenger Deep ~ 11,000m so Pressure =_____??

E. CHEMICAL FACTORS

       1. Water: key properties for life, from textbook
2. IONS, MAJOR--Know  major ions, but donÕt memorize order except for Cl, Na; and

          * BIOLOGICAL ROLES  from TABLE for Na+, Cl-, Ca++, K+, HCO3- 

       3. MINOR/TRACE SOLUTES: nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, iron forms in water;

          * BIOLOGICAL ROLES from TABLE for all of these! Can be limiting factors; e.g., nitrate in N. central oceans, IRON in S. central oceans. Plans to fertilize the oceans with iron: what is proposed, what problems might arise! READING

       4. SALINITY:  a. How measured (%o, mM); general seawater contents, average 35%o. Also MOLARITY (M or mM) and OSMOTIC PRESSURE (mOsm)--NaCl example for all three measures

          b. Altered by: freshwater (rivers, icemelt, rain) or evaporation --examples

          * BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS: i) Osmotic Balance  and   ii) Freezing point: OSMOCONFORMERS vs OSMOREGULATORS –know the differences!

       5. GASES: 

          a. Oxygen--(i) solubility : 0-10 ml O2 / liter of water vs. 210 ml in liter air

                 (ii) Depth--oxygen mimimum or dead zones: more later   (iii) Temperature--warming DECREASES solubility

          b. CO2: Air: 0.00001 moles/liter;  Water: 0.002 moles/liter as HCO3-

                *Solubility and the H20 reaction! know equation and its implications in forming ACID!

          *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS: 

              Oxygen: i) needed for respiration; ii) Minimum or DEAD zones: limiting factor

             CO2: i) for photosynthesis; ii) buffering; iii) carbonate in shells; ACID can dissolve

    CLIMATE CHANGE concerns: 1) TEMPERATURE: heats the Earth! Know how greenhouse effect works and new concerns; 2) ACIDIFICATION! Know equation and effect on shells

F. BIOTIC FACTORS--how organisms in the environment interact

       1. Predation & other foodweb interactions -- define broadly, e.g., herbivores prey on producers

       2. Competition--rivals for space, mates, other resources                                       ;+/- or -/-

       3. Mutualism; +/+

       4. Parasitism/disease : +/-

       5. Commensalism/Amensalism: +/0  and 0/0

II. MARINE ECOLOGY: HIGHER LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
A. POPULATION--know definition; B. COMMUNITY level--know definition
C. ECOSYSTEM level: regional/habitat communities with all abiotic & biotic components
1. ABIOTIC Components: many, but the essential are:
--a. ENERGY: must be renewed because energy is lost as unusable heat: Energy lost at each food-chain step is 80-90%. *2 forms:
---- i) Solar Light--photosynthesi;s ii) Geochemical--chemosynthesis & reduced mineral energy
-- b. NUTRIENTS & water--not lost but must be recycled through "biogeochemical cycles"
2. BIOTIC Components: TROPHIC Interactions = Foodwebs
-- OCEAN vs Land; why complex due to microscopic producers and filter feeders; with up to 6 levels in the oceans often

QUANTITATIVE ECOSYSTEM TERMS: 1. Abundance (and Productivity); 2. Richness; 3. Diversity -- know DEFINITIONS
--What determines ABUNDANCE/RICHNESS/DIVERSITY?
1. ABUNDANCE/Productivity--LIMITING FACTORS i) Energy & ii) Nutrients--why important! Examples of habitats iii) Other harsh abiotic, biotic factors, e.g., Temperature--freezing as crucial threshold
2. RICHNESS & DIVERSITY: know concept, example of each
-- a. Temporal Stability Hypothesis
-- b. Spatial Heterogeneity Hypothesis
-- c. Disturbance Hypotheses! how INTERMEDIATE differs from SEVERE disturbances in affecting diversity
-- d. Energy-flow Hypothesis: briefly
--e. Area Hypothesis (island effect)--skip

D. BIOSPHERE level: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES--Global recycling
5 possible recycling paths: i) Fast Surface loop in mixed layer; ii) Upwelling Loop= sinking and upwelling; iii) deposition then release (from land, oil): iv) Tectonic loop via subduction, uplift -- rock/soil or volcanoes; v) Tectonic loop at ridge --vents, lava
EXAMPLES--Major Ions: recycled every 10 million years via cycles iii) & iv) including erosion: know basic cation and anion pathways
--C, H, N, O, P, S cycle through all four pathways--KNOW THESE:
----Carbon: know pathways including atmospheric CO2 plus limestone, chalk, oil, methane and CaCO3 skeletons/shells
----Phosphorus: know pathways including bird guano and CaPO4 bone

--Salt Ions: know pathways for positive and negative major ones

 

III. ORGANISMAL MARINE BIOLOGY-- MARINE LIFE

A. DOMAINS, KINGDOMS:   Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya = Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia  -- Know basics of each

*VIRUSES: very common; may kill and thus recycle up to 25% of marine organic material

B. TROPHIC ROLES

 1. Producers: = Archaea, Eubacteria, Protista (Micro, Macroalgae), Plantae.  Basic Autotroph mechanisms

All need Process 1: *Energy & *inorganic H+ e- source to make NADPH, ATP from NADP, ADP;

    *PHOTOSYNTHESIS: uses *light and *H/e source = HnX (examples: H2O, H2S)

    *CHEMOSYNTHESIS: use *oxidation of H-e source = reduced geochemicals e.g., H2S + O2

Process 2: CO2 and other inorganic nutrients: NADPH and ATP used to convert them to organic molecules

RUBISCO used by all to fix CO2

2. Decomposers: = Archaea, Eubacteria, Fungi!!

* basic equations of heterotrophy using organic matter with oxidizers: Know equations for O2, SO4, as oxidizers! Pathway for denitrifiers

3. Consumers: = Protista (Protozoa) and Animalia!

C. ADAPTATION: Interactions of organisms with abiotic/biotic factors lead to adaptation

*Species adapt WITH these types of features/strategies (some overlap among): know example of each

1) Mechanical/Anatomical;   2) Physiological/Biochemical              3) Behavioral;              4) Lifecycle

*Two very different time courses of adaptation:

    1) Within lifetime: El Ni–o example! Migratory fish and squid left (survived); seals starved

    2) Evolutionary time: new adaptations from natural selection = different genes. EXAMPLE of LDH/temperature adaptation

*KEY PRINCIPLES of Adaptation

1. Co-evolution: how this causes ongoing adaptations. VIDEO example of snail shells and crab claws/fish jaws

2. Cost/benefit tradeoffs:  "Enough but not too much" Principle! EXAMPLES!

                  Concept that many adaptations cost energy, may divert energy from another adaptation

3. Historical Constraints: leaves non-adaptive vestiges, e.g., whale pelvises

 

CRAIG MATKIN: ECOLOGY OF ORCAS AND GREY WHALES IN ALASKA: know how the orcas feed

 

BENTHIC BIOLOGY and HABITATS

OVERVIEW of Benthic Ecosystems--5 possible food chains in web: Know key examples of each level of each food chain

i) local producer-->herbivore-->carnivore (1 or more levels):

ii) plankton-->local filter feeder--->carnivore (1 or more levels)

iii) detritus-->local deposit/scavenger feeder--->carnivore (1 or more levels)

iv) pelagic animal-->local pelagos-eating benthic carnivore--->carnivore (1 or more levels)

v) local mutualism, e.g. animal/alga -->carnivore (1 or more levels)

 

OVERVIEW of BENTHIC ADAPTATIONS:

Why Movement Factors and Plankton food favor the evolution of sluggish, sessile animals using COST-BENEFIT idea. Thus marine animals are sometimes plantlike! Note how the following adaptations are often analogous to land plant adaptations:

FACTORS and ADAPTATIONS: apply esp. with sluggish/sessile organisms:

1. Light/ENERGY/ Food/Nutrients

a)     Branching structures in filtering animals  [also in algae]=high surface area!

b)    Macroalgae blades with symmetrical structure for photosynthesis; specialized PIGMENTS that enhance light absorption beneath the surface better than chlorophyll! Macroalgae= RHODO-, CHLORO-, PHAEO-phyta

2. BIOTIC interactions --DEFENSES if you canÕt run or fight well

a) ARMOR: coiled shells light but strong; spines. READING on nacre: brick / beams and mortar microanatomy of mollusc shells!  Recall co-evolution with crushing carnivores!--jaws, claws

                  BIOMIMIMETICS: practical usages of nacre-like ceramics

b) CAMOUFLAGE: Static anatomy such as flounderÕ

--also can have dynamic/physiological camouflage such as octopod chromatophores

      ---and behavioral camouflage such as decorator crabs

c) TOXINS/Noxious compounds in animals like plants on land; often ADVERTISE with bright colors: why?

      BIOPRODUCTS: READING on practical uses of ÒDRUGS from the DEEPÓ – why examine marine animals for pharmaceuticals when we usually examine plants on land?

d) Anti-fouling. Anti-competitor compounds—bryozoa, sponges, bacteria that inhibit mussel, barnacle larvae, etc.

BIOPRODUCTS READING--use on ship hulls?

e) Autotomy , self-evisceration: examples of seastars, brittlestars, cucumbers: how useful

f) BEHAVIOR: Clamming up/retreating; etc.; Burrowing as an example; boring in rock

      --ESCAPE RESPONSES: some Sluggish, sessile  animals sometimes have unexpected, fast, innate, predator-triggered maneuvers; e.g., Jumping clam!

3. BIOTIC interactions --OFFENSES

      a) BEHAVIOR    Carnivore Behaviors: hunt&chase (raptorial); ambush; creeping; sedentary/opportunistic

      b) CRUSHING/SMASHING devices - -i) crab claws;  ii) fish jaws; iii) mantis shrimp! Know how each work. BIOMIMETICS why the interest in mantis shrimp claws?

      c) AMBUSH/GRIPPING weapons: harpooning/paralyzing/stunning/poisoning/suckeringÉ.

 i) Cnidaria nematocysts;  ii) cone snail harpoon; iii) snapping shrimp claw jet burst ; iv) octopods -- suckers know how each works!!!  BIOPRODUCTS: why interest in cone-snail toxins?

4. WAVES/CURRENTS: resisting or avoiding

            ARMOR

            BIOLOGICAL GLUES --- BIOPRODUCTS e.g., mussel glue

5. LIFE-CYCLE Adaptations: r- vs K-selected (or strategies): apply cost-benefit idea!

      Modes: a. Asexual (clonal) growth: mutual protection from predation, waves, etc.; rapid colonization

            b. Planktonic Larval Stage:  r-strategy: know this lifecycle, outcome, how larvae settle

                        --sluggish/sedentary spp need means of DISPERSAL

                        --and ways to RECOLONIZE habitats after destruction of adults

            c. Direct Development: K-strategy; or mixed r- and K: many fishes, crabs, mammals

             --mobile adults care for eggs, or put more energy into them as yolk, etc.

--young and old both usually mobile enough to disperse readily

ALSO:             Sex-Reversal in some animals, e.g., clownfish: why useful; magic number in READING

 

 

TEXT: key figures (and associated text, lecture) to understand were given in lecture!

 

READING on LECTURE HANDOUTS--be able to answer these questions:

Lecture #1:      *GREEN BUSH: what did Pres. Bush do?

                        *TROUBLED WATERS—what are some of the key ocean crises?

                         *STARS IN THE SEA: what is the Census of Marine Life, and some key discoveries?

                        *STATIONS IN THE SEA.. what are some of the ocean monitoring systems under development?

                        *ROBOT GLIDERS are being designed to do what?

Lecture #2:      *DEEP-SEA BIOLOGY--What is the extent of our ignorance about the oceans? How did Forbes and Thomson alter the course of marine science?

                        *US SHIP HEADS.. and CANADA BEGINS MAPPING..why the sudden interest in the Arctic seafloor?

Lecture #3:      *DEEP SEA, ARCTIC MAY...what are gas hydrates and why of interest?

                        *DEEP SEA-CRETS : why were these researchers both exhilarated and disheartened?

                        *THE NEXT LAND RUSH: why is the Arctic seafloor suddenly of international interest?

Lecture #4:      *FEARS SURFACE..why this concern about methane hydrates?

                        *CONDITIONS BOOST..what is the importance of upwelling here?

Lecture #5:      *IS ÔTHE DAY AFTERÕ ..how does salinity of the Arctic affect European climate?

                        *FLOATING TEXAS-SIZED GARBAGE..what is this patch and why is it there?

                        *PERFECT STORM – how do storms boost fisheries?

Lecture #6:      *AS OCEANS WARM -- what is the impact on food chains?!

                        *OZONE HOLE and UV are doing what to Antarctic sea life?            

                        *HOT WATERS MAKE IT..what for fish and why?

                        *ARCTIC ICE MELTING..what is happening?

Lecture #7:      *SEVERAL ARTICLES: what are some effects of warming on sea life?

                        *SEVERAL ARTICLES..what are the issues regarding oceanic iron and the plans to fertilize the oceans?

                        *SOUTHERN OCEAN.. what is the concern here?

Lecture #8:      *CONCLUSIVE PROOF: what is this evidence that global warming is human-caused?

                        *WHY do JELLIES love warming?

                        *SCIENTISTS ALARMED..what is causing Dead Zones?

Lecture #9:      *ARTICLE ON on dumping excess CO2 into the deep-sea floor: why?

Lecture #10:    ¥OCEAN STUDY YIELDS: what is the basic finding on ocean microbes?

Lecture #11:    *INDUCIBLE DEFENSES: Examples of cost-benefit tradeoffs: intertidal mussels

                        *PREDATORS RETURN: why might this happen to Antarctica, and why might some life there be vulnerable?

                        *MAKING THE MOST OF IT: what are some biomaterial properties of sponges and mollusks and some practical uses?

Lecture #12:   *Two articles: what has NACRE inspired scientists to create?

                        *RESEARCHERS DOCUMENT RAPID..what rapid change took place in stickleback and why?

                        *DEEP SEA DENIZEN--what is it about cucumbers that is of practical interest?

                        *DRUGS FROM THE DEEP and PRIMORDIAL OCEAN OOZE: why are researchers seeking drugs in the sea, and with what success?

Lecture #13:    --SNAIL VENOM: why medically of interest?

                        --BIOLOGY REVEALS: what are some applications of marine anchoring mechanisms?

                        --SNAIL SPEWS: how does the snapping shrimp stun its prey?