Marine
Biology 178
Mar.
2, 2009
REVIEW LECTURE #--EXAM II
II. MARINE ECOLOGY: HIGHER LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
A. POPULATION--know definition; B. COMMUNITY level--know definition
C. ECOSYSTEM level: regional/habitat
communities with all abiotic & biotic components
1. ABIOTIC
Components: many, but the essential are:
--a. ENERGY: must be renewed because energy is lost as
unusable heat: Energy lost at each food-chain step is 80-90%.
2 PRIMARY forms:
---- i) Solar Light--photosynthesi;s
ii) Geochemical--chemosynthesis & reduced mineral energy
-- b.
NUTRIENTS & water--not lost but must be recycled through "biogeochemical
cycles"!
2.
BIOTIC Components: TROPHIC Interactions = Foodwebs
; Terms = Producers,
Consumers, Decomposers
-- Know OCEANS vs Land; why complex
due to microscopic
producers and filter feeders; with 4 or more levels in the oceans often
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES:
1. ABUNDANCE/Productivity--KEY FACTORS are i) Energy
& ii) Nutrients--why important! Examples
2. RICHNESS & DIVERSITY: know concept, example of each
-- Spatial Heterogeneity Hypothesis
-- Disturbance Hypothesis! how INTERMEDIATE differs from SEVERE disturbances in
affecting diversity
-- Energy-Nutrient Hypothesis: briefly
D. BIOSPHERE level: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES--Global recycling
5 possible recycling paths: i) Fast Surface loop in mixed layer; ii) Upwelling
Loop= sinking and upwelling; iii) deposition then release (from land, oil):
iv) Tectonic loop via subduction,
uplift -- rock/soil or volcanoes; v) Tectonic loop at ridge
--vents, lava
EXAMPLES--Major
Ions: recycled via cycles iii) iv) v) including erosion: know basic cation and anion pathways
CARBON:
know pathways 1) to iv) including atmospheric CO2 plus limestone, chalk, oil,
methane and CaCO3 skeletons/shells
Salt Ions:
know pathways for positive and negative major ones
III. ORGANISMAL MARINE BIOLOGY-- MARINE LIFE
BASIC ORGANISMAL FEATUREs:
BIOMOLECULES: know basics of DNA and PROTEINS!
METABOLISM: 1) *PHOTOSYNTHESIS: uses *light
and water and CO2 to make sugar
and O2 –know equation!
*CHEMOSYNTHESIS:
use mineral/gas
energy and hydrogens and CO2 to make sugar and
O2
2)
CONSUMER and 3) DECOMPOSERS: know AEROBIC equation for conversion of sugar and
O2 to CO2 and water
TYPES OF ORGANISMS: Archaea, Bacteria,
Eukarya = Protista,
Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
-- Know basics of each
*VIRUSES:
very common;
may kill and thus kill up to 25% of marine plankton
A. ARCHAEA: 1. Producers using
chemosynthesis, usual in extreme habitats—examples
2.
Decomposers
B. BACTERIA: 1. Producers using
chemosynthesis or photosynthesis; for the latter, know CYANOBACTERIA!
2.
Decomposers--may breakdown tough materials like oil, exoskeletal
chiton
C. EUKARYA-- organisms with a true cell
nucleus, etc.
1. PROTISTA: a) Unicellular ALGAE:
know DIATOMS
(silica 2-part shell) and DINOFLAGELLATES (cellulose armor, 2 flagella).
b) PROTOZOA—animal-like, unicellular: Know FORAMINIFERA (CaCO3 chambered cell, pseudopods for eating)
c) MACROALGAE: RHODO-, CHLORO-,
PHAEO-phyta=red, green, brown: know basics of holdfast, stipe, blade; and pneumatocyst
in brown algae
2. FUNGI: decomposers, parasites
3. PLANTAE: seagrasses,
wetlands plants, mangroves
4. ANIMALIA: feeding types=filter-feeder,
deposit feeder, herbivore, scavenger, omnivore, carnivore, [absorber],
parasite. KNOW ONES in BOLD CAPS. Can learn just common names of classes
a. PORIFERA--filterers:
small intake, pores and 1 large exit pore; and flagellated cells
b. CNIDARIA--carnivores:
nematocysts, tentacles!! Polyp forms: Hydrozoa (simple)=colonial polyps; Anthozoa
(complex)=anemones, corals; Medusa forms: Scyphozoa = jellies; Cubozoa=box jellies
c.
CTENOPHORA=
comb jellies; 3 rows cilia; 2 sticky tentacles; carnivores
d.
Platyhelminthes= flatworms carnivores: protrusible pharynx, hard tip stylet
e.
Nemertina=ribbon worms, protusible
sticky proboscis wraps prey
f,.
NEMATODA=round
worms; many types of feeding; jaws; one of most numerous animals on earth
g.
Echiuroidea=innkeeper worms filterers;
proboscis, U-tube
h.
Sipunculida=peanut worms; deposit feeder;
sticky tentacles
i. ANNELIDA=segmented
worm; Class POLYCHAETA--segments/bristles;
many feeding types = carnivores with jaws; filter-feeding featherdusters;
etc.
j.
Chaetognatha= arrow worms
k.
MOLLUSCA—general: has head/foot; radula, shell. Features, feeding of classes:
i) Cl. POLYPLACOPHORA--8-plate shell; herbivores
ii)
Cl. GASTROPODA--1-piece
shell; gone in slugs/nudibranchs; many feeding types
iii)
Cl. BIVALVIA--most
filterers using gills;
2-piece hinged shell
iv)
Cl. CEPHALOPODA--radula + beak: carnivores; shelled or reduced or lost shell (octopods)
l.
BRACHIOPODA=lamp
shells; filterer (spiral lophophore); clam-like
2-piece shell but has stalk & hole!
m. Bryozoa=moss animals; filterer (tentacled
/ciliated lophophore); zooids more advanced than polyps
n.
ARTHROPODA
SubPHYLUM CHELICERATA: Cl PYCNOGONIDA=seaspiders
o. ARTHROPODA
SubPHYLUM CRUSTACEA; 2 pair antenna at front
i) Cl. COPEPODA=copepods;
most numerous
animal in oceans; herbivores, carnivores with bristled limbs; swim with
antennae
ii)
Cl.
CIRRIPEDIA=barnacles;
filterers (limbs); head grows to secretes carapace
iv) DECAPODA= lobster, crab, hermit crab,
many shrimp; etc. 5 pairs of limbs; often first pair = claws
p. ECHINODERMATA—general
features of 5x-fold
symmetry; endoskeleton+ spines; tube feet
i) Cl. ASTEROIDEA= seastars:
carnivores (stomach evert) ; 5X arms taper from
central body
ii) Cl. ECHINOIDEA=sand dollar, sea
urchins; many feeding types; ovoid body, no arms
iii) Cl. OPHIUROIDEA=brittle and basket
stars; deposit feeders 5X arms with distinct joint with body
iv)
Cl. HOLOTHUROIDEA=sea
cucumbers; deposit, filter feeders; wormlike body, 5rows tubefeet
and soft spines; modified tubefeet for feeding
v)
Cl. Crinoidea--sea lilies; mostly filter-feed
q.
CHORDATA
subphylum UROCHORDATA--2-siphon
filtering system: i) Cl. ASCIDEA—tunicate/sea squirt benthic form; 2. Cl. THALIACEA=salps (planktonic form)
r,
CHORDATA
subphylum VERTEBRATA:
many feeding types: know these classes and their features as given in lecture
i) AGNATHA; ii) Cl. CHONDRICHTHYES iii) Cl. OSTEICHTHYES v) Cl. REPTILIA vi) Cl. AVES vii)
Cl. MAMMALIA
(note AVES=birds are now placed with reptiles!)
* ADAPTATION: Interactions of organisms with abiotic/biotic
factors lead to adaptation
*Two very different time
courses of adaptation:
1)
Within
lifetime in individuals (using the genes you have): El Ni–o example!
Migratory fish and squid left (adapted with behavior and survived); seals
stayed and starved
2)
Evolutionary
time between species: new adaptations from natural selection = different genes.
EXAMPLE of tropical, polar fish
Theory of Evolution: i) evolution =Change
itself and ii) mechanism causing it
Mechanism: Essentials of Natural Selection
---1. Reproduction: Members of a species reproduce, usually more than needed to
replace parents;
---2. Variation: Offspring have (semi)random differences in genes due to a) sex and b)
mutations and Other Genome changes (some newly discovered)
Note
genetic diversity is INHERENT in life, not some Platonic flaw. Species with more
diversity survive better
---3. "Survival of the fittest" ensues: in the long run, those
with "better" genes will leave more successful offspring, so the
"better" genes eventually dominate the species
Species change, diverge over generations since
environments (which include other species that are also evolving) change over millenia, so this is a never-ending process!
REAL EXAMPLE: Lake Washington STICKLEBACK
fish: how they evolutionarily lost their armor then regained; why armor is a
liability in some situations
KEY PRINCIPLES of Adaptation
1. Co-evolution: how this causes ongoing
adaptations: arms races, etc.. VIDEO example of snail shells and crab
claws/fish jaws
2. Cost/benefit tradeoffs: "Enough but not too much" Principle! EXAMPLES of
thick and thin seashells, stickleback armor; SUVs vs
sports cars or compact cars
Concept
that many adaptations cost energy, may divert energy from another adaptation
3.
Historical
Constraints:
leaves non-adaptive vestiges, e.g., whale pelvises. May also be accidents like
6-armed seastar?
BENTHIC BIOLOGY and HABITATS
i) local
producer-->herbivore-->carnivore (1 or more levels):
ii) plankton-->local filter
feeder--->carnivore (1 or more levels)
iii) detritus-->local
deposit/scavenger feeder--->carnivore (1 or more levels)
iv) pelagic animal-->local pelagos-eating benthic carnivore--->carnivore (1 or more
levels)
v) local mutualism, e.g. animal/alga
partnership -->carnivore (1 or more levels)
OVERVIEW of BENTHIC ADAPTATIONS:
Why Movement Factors and Plankton
food favor the evolution of sluggish, sessile animals using COST-BENEFIT idea. Thus marine
animals are sometimes plantlike! Note how the following adaptations are often
analogous to land plant adaptations:
FACTORS and
ADAPTATIONS: apply esp. with sluggish/sessile organisms:
1. Light/ENERGY/ Food/Nutrients
Thin and/or Branching structures in filtering
animals [also in algae]=high surface
area!
2. BIOTIC interactions --DEFENSES if you canŐt run or fight well
a) ARMOR: coiled shells, light but
strong; spines; etc. READING on nacre: brick / beams and mortar microanatomy of mollusc shells!
Recall co-evolution with crushing carnivores! jaws, claws
BIOMIMIMETICS/BIOINSPIRATION: practical usages of nacre-like
ceramics
b) CAMOUFLAGE:
Static
anatomy such as
flounder; oyster shell
--also can have dynamic/physiological
camouflage such as octopod chromatophores--how these work
---and
dynamic/behavioral camouflage such as decorator crabs
c) TOXINS/Noxious compounds in animals like plants on land;
i)
Anti-Predator: often WARN with bright colors:
why?
ii) Anti-fouling. Anti-competitor
compounds: drive off competitors, parasites
BIOPRODUCTS READING--use on
ship hulls? Drugs: why examine marine animals for pharmaceuticals when we
usually examine plants on land?
d) Autotomy , self-evisceration: examples of seastars,
brittlestars, cucumbers: how useful
e) BEHAVIOR: Clamming
up/retreating; etc.; Burrowing as an example; boring in rock
--ESCAPE
RESPONSES: some
Sluggish,
sessile animals sometimes have
unexpected, fast, innate, predator-triggered maneuvers; e.g., Jumping clam!
3. BIOTIC interactions --OFFENSES
a)
BEHAVIOR Carnivore Behaviors: ambush;
creeping; hunt&chase; sedentary/opportunistic;
know example of each
b) CRUSHING/SMASHING devices - -i)
crab claws; ii) fish jaws; iii) mantis
shrimp! Know how each work. BIOMIMETICS: why the interest in mantis shrimp
claws?
c)
AMBUSH/GRIPPING
weapons: harpooning/paralyzing/stunning/poisoning/suckeringÉ.
i) Cnidaria nematocysts; ii) cone snail harpoon; iii)
snapping shrimp claw jet burst ; iv) octopods -- suckers . Know how each works!!! BIOPRODUCTS/BIOMIMETICS: why interest in
cone-snail toxins? Suckers?
4. WAVES/CURRENTS: resisting or avoiding
i) ARMOR
ii)
AVOIDANCE: burrowing, boring..
iii)
BIOLOGICAL GLUES --- how used by MUSSELS: BIOPRODUCTS e.g., mussel glue
5. LIFE-CYCLE Adaptations: r- vs K-selected
types: apply cost-benefit idea!
Modes:
a. Asexual (clonal) growth: mutual protection
from predation, waves, etc.; and yields rapid colonization
b.
Planktonic Larval Stage=r-strategy: know
this lifecycle, outcome, how larvae settle. Few survive
--sluggish/sedentary
spp need means of DISPERSAL
--also
ways to RECOLONIZE habitats after destruction of adults
c.
Direct Development: K-strategy; or between r- and K: many
fishes, crabs, mammals
--mobile adults care for eggs, and/or
put more energy into young as yolk, milk. Most survive
--young and old both usually
mobile enough to disperse readily
Some
are COMBINATIONS, like crabs
BENTHIC HABITATS: A. INTERTIDAL
TECTONICS, Surface, Movements:: Basics of Rocky, Sandy,
Muddy habitats and wave energy
TECTONICS: Active vs Passive
margins -- differences and why
TIDES and WAVES affect many factors ; see below
ROCKY SHORE COMMUNITY: Highest wave energy
ADAPTATIONS to
Tide/Wave factors:
1. Wave
Shock--pounding physically by waves, altered by tide level
a)
ARMOR: shells ; b) STREAMLINING
c)
ELASTICITY & energy dissipation; Stipes of
Macroalgae!
d)
GLUES & anchorages: --mussel byssal threads-- READING!!
e)
Behavioral Avoidance—crevices; ŇboringÓ clams
f)
Life-cycle: i) colonies give mutual protection; ii) planktonic larvae to recolonize destroyed area
2. Water
availability/loss (evaporation problem):
a)
SHELL,s other waterproof coverings
b)
Physiological "Tolerance"--algae dry up 60-90%; some chitons
30-70%; unknown how survive,
c) Behavioral
Avoidance--crevices/under algae
d)
Life-cycle: i) colonies give mutual protection; ii) planktonic larvae to recolonize destroyed area
3. Oxygen:
gills don't work in air
a)
Lungs—Littorina periwinkle!
Isopod scavengers -- both live in upper intertidal
b) Physiological Tolerance:
Dormancy & enhanced Anaerobic metabolism=non-acid endproducts
(cf. lactic acid in us and other animals)
4.
Temperature -- Pattern: rapid ĆT in sun exposed limpets,
barnacles, etc.
a)
COLOR, SHAPE: Reflect/radiate: light-colored and/or sculpted shells; darker to absorb in
polar
b)
Physiological Tolerance; how stress or heat-shock proteins might protect upper
intertidal organisms
c)
Behavioral Avoidance--crevices/under algae
d)
Life-cycle: planktonic larvae to recolonize
5. Salinity--drastic
changes possible in air: osmosis damage
a)
waterproof coverings again
b)
Physiological: most exposed
spp. killed by major changes, e.g. severe rainstorms
i) Osmoregulation --tidepool
fish: gills
regulate
Or
ii) Osmoconforming
c) Behavioral
Avoidance--crevices/under algae
d)
Life-cycle: planktonic larvae to recolonize; crucial since major storms can kill off
adults.
6. Nutrients
for producers: none when tide out; macroalgae cannot
absorb from rocks
a)
MUTUALISM: lichens symbiosis: PO4 from rocks, by fungi; N2 fixation by cyanobacteria
--reason for success in splash/upper zones!
7. Light
Intensity: No canopy can develop due to waves
a)
SYMMETRICAL BLADES of macroalgae
b)
SUNSCREENS=UV ABSORBING PIGMENTS: READING on mycosporin
amino acids=MAAs
8. Food/prey
availability--none when tide out , so go dormant
Exceptions:
animals with lungs! i) tidepool
animals; ii) Isopods; iii) Littorina periwinkles; iv) BIRDS: Surf
bird adaptation from the video
9. Predator
exposure--more intense in LOWER zones
a)
SHELLS, spines; b) CAMOUFLAGE: e.g., chiton
with algae on it
c)
TOXINS, noxious compounds. Example of Phaeophytes--vacuoles
w/H2SO4, etc.
d)
Behavioral--avoidance
e)
LifeCycle: as before
10. Competition: a)
Anti-competitor compounds
b)
Behavioral: Territoriality--Anemone clone
wars -- acrorhagia
battles
ii)
Farmer
LIMPET patrols territory, removes competitors, slams carnivores!
c) LifeCycle
--colonize
rapidly w/larvae and grow fast
ECOLOGY
of ROCKY INTERTIDAL: Factors/Adaptations lead to ZONATION:
be able to draw and
explain zones and KITE diagrams of key factors; typical organisms
--Refuge and harsh-environment hypotheses;
how this shows that variable abiotic stresses are harder to adapt to in UPPER ZONES; what rewards accrue to
succeeders through COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION!!!
--Intermediate
disturbances: role of waves, keystone seastar in enhancing
diversity in LOWER zones; prevents Competitive Exclusion
TEXT: key figures (and associated
text, lecture) to understand were given in lecture!
READING
on LECTURE HANDOUTS--be able to answer these questions:
Lecture #9: *ARTICLE ON on dumping excess CO2 into the deep-sea floor: how and why?
Lecture #10: *HOT LIFE-FORMS
FOUND: what is the new finding on ocean microbes?
*ACID
SEAS..affect clownfish how?
Lecture #11: *SILICON LIFE FORMS: what
properties of Diatoms are scientists trying to apply?
*PREDATORS
RETURN: why might this happen to Antarctica, and why might some life there be
vulnerable?
Lecture #12: *CAN
SEAWEED MEND..what is alginate being used for here,
and why?
Lecture #13: *DECODING SEA URCHIN GENOME..found what similarities with human genes?
Lecture # 14: *RESEARCHERS DOCUMENT RAPID..what reverse evolution was documented in
sticklebacks, and what caused it?
*SPINES:
what is unusual about sea urchin spines?
Lecture # 15: *MAKING THE MOST OF IT: What is
NACRE made of, and some possible applications (Biomimetics)?
*DEEP
SEA DENIZEN--what is it about cucumbers that is of practical interest?
*DRUGS
FROM THE DEEP and PRIMORDIAL OCEAN OOZE: why are researchers seeking drugs in
the sea, and with what success?
*MANTIS SHRIMP
use their specialized limb how?
Lecture # 16: *SNAIL VENOM: why medically of interest?
*SHRIMP
SPEWS: how does the snapping shrimp stun its prey?
*BIOLOGY
REVEALS..what are some applications of marine anchoring
mechanisms?
Lecture # 17: *VIDEO: WOOD GLUE -- how was
mussel glue applied here?
*ALGINATES,
AGAR, CARAGEENAN: are used how?
*WARMER SEAS DRIVE..what is global warming doing?
Lecture # 18: *NATURE's
SUNSCREEN: what is this product based on?
*ENEMY
ANEMONE : why do anemone clones often reach a stalemate in the wild?
*FARMER
LIMPET--unusual behavior in what ways?
*ANEMONE
REVEALS..what about its genes?