Marine Biology 278

Apr. 9, 2009 REVIEW OUTLINE FOR EXAM III

NOTE: you might want to review topics from EXAM I / REVIEW OUTLINE I that apply to the current material. E.g.: temperature and life; wave action; light colors & UV

SANDY BEACH COMMUNITY

ZONATION due to similar factors--Upper detrital zone with amphipods, etc.; lower burrower zones; Infauna & Meiofauna

ADAPTATIONS:

1. WAVE Shock: a) Armor: heavy ribbed shells: ribbing to grip sand

b) Behavior: dig deep like geoduck;

c) Physiology--biological clocks e.g. in beachhoppers--how used, why useful

2. Water –dig down to water table or stay under detritus

3. Oxygen--i) lungs -- beach hopper amphipods

ii) Go anaerobic – shallow clams

iii) Stay in water – deep burrowers & migrating “wash riders”

4. Temperature 5. Salinity

} buffered by burrowing to water table

6. Food availability –bird beaks! VIDEO: how bird beaks are used, how they avoid competition on beach!

7. Predator exposure--Defenses

a) Armor; b) deep burrowing ; c) fast burrowing w/light-weight shell (tradeoff!). Know how foot works!

MUDFLAT COMMUNITY

Zonation—often Wetlands = upper saltmarsh/mangrove, lower open mudflat zones. Why WATER, WAVES not problems!

Factors & Adaptations:

1. Oxygen:

a) Anaerobic bacteria! (CH2O)x + SO4=---> CO2 + H2S

b) Plant roots: shallow; mangrove pneumatophores

c) Behavior, animals: open burrows with active aeration; H2S toxic (WHY?)

2. Light – plants are shallow, leaves above water

3. Temperature 4. Salinity

} buffered in burrows

5. Food availability: how the unusual Macoma vacuum-cleaner clam outdoes other clams!

B. SUBTIDAL Habitats: Temperate Zones

ROCKY ZONES and ZONATION—basic effects of light, waves, currents

a) INSHORE zones; Encrusting or fouling community

b) KELP FOREST in many rocky areas= intermediate zone; holdfast microcommunity: basic factors, food web

c) OFFSHORE Zone: often sediments, some rocks; filterers, scavengers, deposit feeders

KELP FOREST ECOLOGY

How kelp energy enters the food chain; OTTERS as keystone species and history of urchins, orcas

FACTORS/ADAPTATIONS:

1. Waves, Tides, Currents: Holdfast glue; flexible cell walls; etc.

2. LIGHT / Depth: phaeophyte pneumatocysts, and PIGMENTS: red and brown algae

3. NUTRIENTS: macroalgae take up nutrients on all surfaces. This plus light yields fastest growing producers

5. FOOD/PREY—example of sea otter; flexibility of octopod arms

6. PREDATION—DEFENSES: a) Armor: shells etc.•coralline algae

b) Noxious chemicals: •CO—pneumatocyst •Toxins in soft animals •Dynamic camouflage: octopods

c) Behavior: •Behavioral camouflage =decorator crabs

•Escape responses

SUBTIDAL -- SOFT-BOTTOM Habitats

-- basic adaptations/roles of EELGRASS & their rhizomes

PELAGIC BIOLOGY

PRODUCERS--know each type, basic features

2) Cyanobacteria: top producers by cell count; much unknown; read on new group = picobiliphytes!

3) Microalgae Protista:

--DIATOMS: general form, SiO2 frustule; radial shape in plankton; #1 top producers by biomass;

--Dinoflagellates: 2 flagella, armor; most photosynthetic but not all

--Coccolithophorids--CaCO3 plates/one cell; READING on functions

--DECOMPOSERS—Eubacteria; Archaea: much unknown

--CONSUMERS—know types, basic features & habitat, what and how they eat:

1) Protista--PROTOZOA

a. Foraminifera--amoeboid, pseudopods through forams in chambered CaCO3 shell; eat bacteria, microalgae

b. Radiolaria--amoeboid, pseudopods, silica skeleton, eat same

2) ANIMALS: know PHYLA as follows, especially CAPITALIZED ones: basic features, how they eat:

• CNIDARIA--carnivores: nematocysts! Medusa and colony gasbags: Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, Hydrozoa

• CTENOPHORA--carnivores--2 sticky tentacles: 8 rows cilia

• MOLLUSCA--head/foot; radula structure, etc. i) Cl. GASTROPODA--heteropods, pteropods

iv) Cl. CEPHALOPODA--radula + beak; carnivores; shelled or reduced or lost shell--e.g., SQUID

• Annelida -- swimming polychaetes
• CHAETOGNATHA--carnivore (jaws) = arrow worms ; eat copepods
• ARTHROPODA subphylum CRUSTACEA; 2 pair antenna at front:

Cl. COPEPODA--filterers with limbs; swimming antennae; #1 herbivores on Earth!

ii) EUPHAUSIDS: KRILL -- shrimplike, but only have swimming limbs

iii) DECAPODS: shrimp

• Echinodermata -- swimming seacucumbers; see later

•CHORDATA subphylum UROCHORDATA--2-siphon filtering system

ii) Cl. THALIACEA--salp form! iii) Larvacea -- tadpole-like forms

• CHORDATA subphylum VERTEBRATA: many feeding types

A. EPIPELAGIC Zone--PLANKTON:

Be able to define these: Phyto- vs. Zoo-; Mero- vs. Holo- plankton

OVERVIEW of PELAGIC ECOSYSTEMS

5 common food chains –know THREE

i) phytoplankton-->herbivore zooplankton ->carnivore (2 or more levels); e.g., diatom-->copepod->chaetognath->fish, etc.

ii) plankton->filter feeder->higher carnivores

iii) MICROBIAL LOOP: up to 25% of energy via producer death/leakage, then bacteria, protozoa-->animals
ADAPTATIONS
1. Density: Sinking bad; need BUOYANCY MECHANISMS

a. Body shape = Increased Friction via high SA/volume ratios--slows sinking greatly, waves suspend like dust motes in air ; --How SMALL SIZE helps; also spines and other thin features !

b. Physiology = Reduce DENSITY--protein, shell problem

(i) Low-density compounds: waxes in copepods

(ii) GAS--not so common: Siphonophores (gasbag colonial hydrozoans) as example (Man O'war)

c. Behavior: Motility--all flagellated, ciliated, limbed swimmers

2. FOOD and FEEDING: --know Copepod eggbeater method

3. PREDATION DEFENSEs:

a) Body cover--shells, spines; gelatinous transparent stealth camouflage!

b) Toxins--red tides: dinoflagellate neurotoxins; animals suffer, or co-evolve resistance!

c) Bioluminescence--startle and slow predators & Burglar alarm!

-- usually Blue or blue-green to penetrate!

d) Behavioral: Escape responses

4. Currents/Eddies & Temperature: plankton swept to wrong thermal habitat: die or

Lifecycle Adaptation: enter dormant stages. How this accounts for ship ballast transport

5. Salinity --DMSP as key osmolyte: READING on role in climate, possible UV protectant!!

PLANKTON ECOLOGY: know the roles and examples on the global map of the importance of 1) UPWELLING; 2) Shallow MIXING; 3) SPRING/SUMMER; 4) Runoff; 5) Eddies.

--BLOOM cycles in polar, tropical, seas-- due to light, nutrients, and annual changes

B. EPIPELAGIC--NEKTON

1. MOTILITY: Multipurpose ADAPTATION defines nekton!

Adaptation to staying in light zone; currents; temperature; predation; reproduction

KNOW the two types of turbulence and general solutions:
i) wake turbulence: -- how teardrop shapes help; also golf-ball dimples

ii) flow separation -- how "riblets" help!

*) Anatomical adaptations to Reduce friction & turbulence. EXAMPLES:

i) Sharks-- Skin denticles as riblets; teardrop; also ram ventilation, endothermy, lunate tail

ii) Tunas (Scombrids)—Teardrop; Finlets as riblets?; Smooth mucus; Fin grooves; lunate tail; ram ventilation, endothermy

iii) Humpbacks --reading on tubercles

iv) Dolphins: Teardrop; lunate/truncate tail;; 3-hinged tail with spring energy; endothermy; dynamic riblets

in skin at high speed? BEHAVIOR porpoising & surfing (Bow-wave riding!) & slip-stream riding--how save energy

*) Thrust mechanisms, devices:

i) ROWING/paddling—e.g., duck feet: one power stroke only so inefficient

ii) UNDULATING with CAUDAL FINs: two power strokes—compare tail types

***lunate, truncate, round tails and their features and uses!

iii) JETTING: squid mechanism

iv) FLYING: how wing can give two power strokes using lift /thrust and lift/recovery mechanisms

2. DENSITY/Depth --Buoyancy needed to stay where most food is:

i) CEPHALOPODS: --Low density ions + “pen” instead of a shell in squid

ii) CHONDRICTHYES: cartilaginous bones; Dynamic lift: how this works in a shark with heterocercal fins and snout angle

iii) OSTEICTHYES: swim bladder: how the gas-gland and countercurrent work to trap O2

3. Temperature: a) ECTOTHERMS: Evolution of different temp. optima through protein mutations

Polar: Osmoregulating polar FISH & Antifreeze proteins

b) ENDOTHERMS: lamnid sharks, scombrids, mammals, birds. Use insulation and retes as countercurrent heat-exchangers: how trap heat in fish red muscles, dolphin flippers, etc.

Overheating proble: rete COOLS dolphin testes, can allow heat out through flippers, etc.

*) seals "basking" on land: sunning or escape predation? Reading on re-thinking of this!

4. Oxygen: ram ventilation; blowhole

5. PREDATION-- DEFENSES:

a) Camouflage--Countershading

b) Squid ink--how made, and acts as possible decoy shape!

c) Behavior: Schooling! --Probability factor: how radius of detection favors schooling

-- Escape Maneuvers—flash expansion confuses predator’s limited short-term memory

**How LATERAL LINES of fish work and help coordinate schooling

6. FOOD/PREY--Predation Offenses:

GENERAL PROBLEMS: 1) tiny base of food chain; 2) schooling; 3) hidden prey

CO-Evolution: filter-feeding; corralling/stunning/slashing; and non-visual senses

a) FILTERING: Clupeoids, whale sharks; Mysticeti = baleen whales

i) gill raker mechanism; baleen mechanism & how used

ii) Behavior: Video notes: cooperative humpback bubblenetting

b) CARNIVORY (other)-- scombrids, most sharks, Odontoceti = toothed whales; pinnipeds

i) Antischooling: herding/corralling behavior; mass stunning devices; ii) Non-visual senses

EXAMPLES:

i) SWORDFISH/MARLIN etc: corralling behavior, slashing devices!

iii) PINNIPEDS: Whiskers as turbulence detectors; reading

iv) SHARKS in general: Electroreception--ampullae on snout. How used, how metal fools

v) ODONTOCETI: Echolocation: produced by sacs/lips, focused by melon, received by jaw fat and inner ear. Versatility in discriminating targets; possible "aural vision" of world

--may also use to stun prey???

vi) SeaBIRDS: Pelican pouch; Albatross Olfactory sensing—DMS smelling and why useful !

--OTHER CARNIVORY Adaptations--for larger prey, etc.

i) SHARKS: a) Anatomical adaptations --loose hinged jaw, replaceable teeth in rows, eye cover

c) Behavioral: white shark attack methods--cruise against bottom, lunge upwards fast !

ii) ORCAS: Behavioral adap.: SOCIAL cooperative hunting, teaching young -- VIDEO !!!

ECOLOGY : importance of APEX PREDATORS!!

7. DIVING: Useful for finding food not easily caught by other predators; hiding also?

a) Oxygen problem: i) DIVE REFLEX, ii) O2 stores as extras hemo- and myoglobin, and

SPLEEN; iii) GLIDING behavior. How these solve most dive needs aerobically. iv) Anaerobic as last resort: extra muscle buffers

b) Nitrogen problem: how "bends" occurs with nitrogen gas; how mammals solve but not completely with fat to absorb the gas, and collapsible respiratory tracts to reduce gas

8. MIGRATION & Navigation: Adaptive for FEEDING and BREEDING

i) follow currents, food/seasons iii) escape predation--esp. for young: use remote, isolated sites

ii) warmer temperature for young iv) OR dispersal--minimize young/old competition (non-social)

Examples: a) SeaTurtles follow GYRES; breed on remote islands/isolated beaches. Young dispersed

b) FISH: Salmon: general FW/SW pattern and suspected adaptive aspects;

--TUNAS: breeding in low-productive tropical waters; vs feeding grounds

c) Grey Whales/Humpbacks: to warm waters (for young) with fewer predators; follow seasons: know annual pattern, feeding, and reasons

d) Pinnipeds: remote rookeries: reasons =warm for young; escape predation

e) Seabirds: isolated islands, cliffs = warm for young; escape predation; follow seasons

Problem—lose fear of terrestrial predators in isolated sites: Great auk extinction!

--NAVIGATION during Migrations: many unknowns

ii) landmarks--Spyhopping by whales? iii) Sun/stars--birds?

iv) olfaction –salmon find home stream; turtles (READING)

iv) sound—blue whale echolocation???

vi) Magnetoreception--known in birds; magnetite found in these and tunas, some cetaceans

READING:

Lecture 19 (mislabeled 18), Mar. 11:

--AMAZING: what are MEOIFAUNA, recent interest and findings, key examples?

Lecture 20, Mar. 13: --OTTER DECLINE affects eagles how?

--NEW MARINE SPECIES: what new species were found in the Aleutians?

--KELP FORESTS WIDESPREAD: what is this new discovery?

Lecture 21, Mar. 24; FIELD TRIP

--TRANSPARENT ANIMALS--what is this recent rethinking about salps, etc.?

--KRILL KICK UP--how do they affect ocean mixing?

--FLORIDA RED TIDE: what is the toxin here and an application?

--HOT SPOT -- what was found about the Strait of Juan de Fuca?

LECTURE 22 Mar. 30: --ALGAE ANXIETY; what was found about iron?

--IRON IN NORTHWEST: what is the role of this nutrient?

--ROBOT OCTOPUS: what is the bioinspiration here?

LECTURE 23, Apr. 1: --BRISTLING SKIN—what was found about shark hydrodynamics?

--WHEN SUN'S TOO STRONG…what else besides osmolyte role could DMSP be used for? How does it affect climate?

--OCEAN IN A BOTTLE: what is going on with DMSP here?

--DIAGRAMS: adaptations of sharks reduce turbulence

LECTURE 24, Apr. 3: --CRABS NOT ONLY—what was found about pain here?

--MOTHER’S SLIPSTREAM helps how?

--WHO ATE ALL—what happened in the current iron-fertilization experiment?

--STRATEGY: FLIPPERS and PRODUCT: what’s the deal with humpback tubercles?

--BIOMECHANICS--SPRING LOADED: how does dolphin tail work?

--SCIENTISTS DISCOVER SECRET… how might dolphin molting help with speed?

--DOLPHIN SKIN--what is the COMPLIANCE aspect about?

--MARINE TECHNOLOGY--is using dolphin biology how?

LECTURE 25, Apr. 6:--SEALS FORCED…Why do seals sit in the sun?

--HOW DOLPHINS KEEP… their testes cool?

LECTURE 26, Apr. 8: --WHALE FOSSIL revealed what?

--BALEEN WHALES ABLE TO SWALLOW: what are the new findings on baleen whales?

--BY A WHISKER: how do seals use their whiskers as sensors? How were SealCams used in this study??

--WHALES DRINK SOUNDS: what is the new finding on hearing?

--NARWHAL’S TUSK does what?

--BANG YOU’re DEAD: what is involved here?

--NAVY, WHALE ADVOCATES and OCEANS TOO NOISY: what is the issue with navy sonar testing and other human noise?

--KILLER WHALES like king salmon, why?

LECTURE 27, Apr. 10: --HOW DOLPHINS STEER: What was found here?

--GO AHEAD, VENT YOUR SPLEEN--how do diving mammals use their spleens?

--HOW do whales etc. dive so deep?

--CASCADING EFFECTS—why are apex predatory sharks important?

LECTURE 28, Apr. 13: --UNVEILING THE WAYS..what has tracking revealed about shark migrations?

--SEABIRDS TAKE RECORD..what was found about sooty shearwaters recently?

--TO FLEE OR NOT-- what happened to iguana escape responses, and the consequences?

--NO PLACE LIKE HOME..how do these animals find their way home?

--BLUEFINS MINGLE—where do these tuna go and why does it matter?

--EARLY WHALES--what does the fossil record show?